Criterion V. Norm Referenced (Coco)

Sample Solution

Criterion-referenced tests measure a student's mastery of a specific skill or knowledge objective. The student's performance is compared to a pre-established standard, or criterion, rather than to the performance of other students. Criterion-referenced tests are often used to assess student learning at the end of a unit or course to ensure that they have met the learning objectives.

Norm-referenced tests measure a student's performance relative to other students. The student's score is compared to the scores of other students in a similar group, such as all students in the same grade level or all students who took the same test. Norm-referenced tests are often used to place students in appropriate classes or programs, or to track student progress over time.

Full Answer Section

Criterion-referenced test: A student completes a math test at the end of a unit on fractions. The test includes 10 problems, and the student must answer 8 of them correctly to pass. The student's score on the test is not compared to the scores of other students; instead, it is compared to the pre-established criterion of 80% correct.

Norm-referenced test: A student takes the SAT, a standardized test used for college admissions. The student's score on the SAT is compared to the scores of other students who have taken the test. The student's score is placed on a percentile scale, which indicates how the student performed relative to other students.

References:

• Brookhart, J. (2011). Educational measurement of students achievement. Pearson.
• Stiggins, R. J. (2013). Student-centered classroom assessment. Pearson.
• Wiliam, D. (2011). Embedded formative assessment. Solution Tree Press.

Q2. Cyber-attacks against infrastructure systems have steadily increased over the years. Why, and by whom?

There are a number of reasons why cyber-attacks against infrastructure systems have steadily increased over the years. One reason is that infrastructure systems are becoming increasingly digitized and interconnected. This makes them more vulnerable to attack, as attackers can exploit vulnerabilities in one system to gain access to other systems.

Another reason is that the value of infrastructure systems is increasing. As our society becomes more dependent on these systems, attackers see them as more attractive targets.

Cyber-attacks against infrastructure systems can be carried out by a variety of actors, including:

• State-sponsored actors: State-sponsored actors, such as nation-states and terrorist groups, may launch cyber-attacks against infrastructure systems to disrupt or disable critical services, or to steal sensitive information.
• Criminal organizations: Criminal organizations may launch cyber-attacks against infrastructure systems to extort money from the victims, or to steal data that can be sold on the black market.
• Individual hackers: Individual hackers may launch cyber-attacks against infrastructure systems for a variety of reasons, such as to challenge themselves, to gain notoriety, or to cause damage.

Q3. Is cybersecurity more critical to SCADA than physical security? Explain and justify your answer.

SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition) systems are used to control and monitor critical infrastructure systems, such as power grids, water systems, and transportation systems. Cybersecurity is critical to SCADA systems because a successful cyber-attack could have a devastating impact on these systems and on the communities that rely on them.

Physical security is also important for SCADA systems, but it is not as critical as cybersecurity. Physical security measures, such as fences and security guards, can help to prevent unauthorized access to SCADAsystems, but they cannot prevent cyber-attacks.

Here are some examples of the damage that a cyber-attack on a SCADA system could cause:

• A cyber-attack could cause a power outage, disrupting critical services such as hospitals and emergency communication systems.
• A cyber-attack could contaminate a water supply, making it unsafe to drink.
• A cyber-attack could disrupt transportation systems, causing widespread delays and chaos.

For these reasons, cybersecurity is more critical to SCADA than physical security.

Conclusion

Cybersecurity is critical to SCADA systems and other critical infrastructure systems because a successful cyber-attack could have a devastating impact on these systems and on the communities that rely on them.