11.1 Explain the structure of a sound argument
Reading Arguments
READING ASSIGNMENT
Read this assignment. Then, read Chapter 19 in your textbook.
To evaluate an argument, clear thinking is essential. You have to
recognize if the logic is sound and if examples provide valid support.
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You’ll also look for emotional appeals, which add another element to
the presentation. In this assignment, you’ll first learn what to look for
when reading or appraising an argument. The five basic dimensions to
an effective argument are included with examples in the following list:
An issue with two or more opposing viewpoints: Neutering family
pets
A claim or assertion with respect to the issue designating one
viewpoint: With exceptions, such as breeding desirable animals
for potential customers, family pets should be neutered.
Logical support for the claim: Animal control personnel are forced
to euthanize thousands of cats and dogs due to the behavior of
irresponsible pet owners. Also, discarded and uncared for
animals create a public health hazard.
Anticipating likely rebuttals or refutations of the claim: Some
people can’t afford the veterinary bills.
A conclusion that’s consistent with and reinforces the claim:
Neutering family pets prevents the birth of unwanted animals,
which may suffer a cruel fate (based on values); or, unwanted
cats and dogs create a tax burden for responsible citizens (based
on economics).
Argumentation is an art that most of us start developing as soon as we
learn to speak. We sometimes argue not because we’re angry, but
because argumentation causes us to carefully examine our own and
others’ ideas. We weigh conflicting claims; make judgments about the
nature of evidence and the procedures of investigation; state our ideas
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clearly, accurately, and honestly; and listen respectfully and critically
to other people’s ideas. Whether speaking, thinking, or writing, we all
use argumentation on a daily basis, so you probably already have
some skill at crafting an argument. The more you improve your skills
in this area, the better you’ll be at thinking critically, reasoning, and
weighing evidence—necessary skills for all parts of your life.
Like other types of writing, arguments respond to specific situations: a
need isn’t being met, a person is being treated unfairly, an important
idea is misunderstood, or an outdated policy needs to be reexamined.
Therefore, you need to spend time thinking about the underlying
situation on which an issue is based as well as thoughtfully examining
any assumptions you and your reader might hold.
The text will address the following questions to equip you as both
reader and writer when facing an argument:
What are the best strategies for reading an argument?
What are the best strategies for analyzing and evaluating an
argument?
How can one best appraise an emotional appeal used to support
an argument?
What are the basic rules of logic and sound reasoning?
Reading Highlights
Page 493
Your “Writing Quick Start” exercise asks you to think critically about
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the photo of a student protest against tuition increases. With your
critique and analysis in mind, you’re invited to write a paragraph that
identifies some other issue that may evoke a student protest.
Pages 492–498
Carefully study this section, because it comprises the basic
information you need to know about arguments. Note that an
argument revolves around an issue, an idea problem, or controversy
about which people’s views differ. A claim is generally the point the
writer wants to prove; but there are three kinds of claims: claims of
fact, claims of value, and claims of policy.
You may wonder how a fact could be the claim of an argument—if
something is a fact, how can it have an opposing viewpoint? The claim
of fact is also known as substantiation because it requires asserting
that some new or previously unconsidered bit of information is real
and true. For a long time, the average citizen of Western Europe
“knew” the earth was flat. Then someone made a claim of fact that the
earth is round and provided sufficient support (substantiated the
claim), so we now know the earth isn’t flat.
Claims of fact usually defend or refute someone else’s interpretation of
the facts. Think about the controversy between those who believe
evolution (Darwinism) is a fact and those who say creationism is a
fact. Each side evidently works with the same facts, but each provides
a different argument to support its claim. Sometimes the change in
interpretation involves reclassifying information.
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Another claim of fact could involve clarifying a definition of a term. The
issue of abortion hinges in part on the factual definitions of baby and
life. Some say a baby is alive at the moment of conception, while
others assert that life begins at the moment of birth. You’ll find that
you need to incorporate other strategies, particularly definition, in your
argument’s pattern of development.
Another kind of claim is that of value or evaluation (asserting that
something has a specific value). These claims ask: Is something right
or wrong, beneficial or harmful? Who says it’s beneficial and on what
principle, value, or moral do they base that claim? Here’s an example
of this kind of claim: The movie The Princess Bride more clearly
presents a spoof of chivalry in its varied components than the novel
does.
The third category is claim of policy, in which the writer calls for a
specific action. Thesis statements establish claims in answer to
questions like: What should we do? How are we to act? What policy
should we take? What course of action should we take to solve this
problem? Note the use of should as part of the verb, a common
occurrence in claims of policy.
Review the following three thesis statements. Which contains a claim
that can be developed into an appropriate argument?
- Parents are often too busy to watch television shows with their
families but can monitor their children’s viewing habits with the
aid of the V-chip.
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Course Version: 3 - To help parents monitor their children’s viewing habits, the V-chip
should be a required feature for television sets sold in the United
States. - This paper will describe a V-chip and examine the uses of the Vchip in American-made television sets.
The first thesis offers a general factual statement rather than a claim
of fact that needs to be proven (substantiated)—no one will argue that
parents have this option. The third example also fails to provide an
effective claim about the value of the V-chip and leans toward an
informative classification essay. The second sentence is the strongest
argumentative thesis because it presents a claim of policy; it clearly
states the writer’s position on the issue and suggests that the writer
will proceed to prove the necessity of this action.
Support for an argument can be based on reasons; evidence, in the
form of facts, statistics, and expert opinion; and emotional appeals,
which are based on either needs or values. Be sure you understand
the differences in the types of support. The refutation, or rebuttal,
recognizes that there are other points of view and seeks to disprove or
dismiss them. The conclusion makes a final appeal for the original
claim.
Tip: Graphic Organizer 19.1 offers a sample graphic organizer for an
argument essay.
Pages 499–503
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As you read “Are Zoos the Best Answer for Animals?” the essay by
Suzanne Nguyen, study the highlighted areas of the essay and the
margins of your textbook, which point out the author’s thesis and the
basic parts of the argument. Has she presented a well-supported
claim on an issue, considered rebuttals, and reached a conclusion?
Pages 503–505
Read Brian Palmer’s essay “Tipping Is an Abomination.” In it, he
argues that tipping maintains racism against black patrons, doesn’t
foster hard work, creates legal issues for employees and employers,
and doesn’t provide a living wage for restaurant workers outside of
the wait staff. Without the benefit of highlighting and margin notes, can
you identify the various elements of his argument?
Tip: A graphic organizer for Palmer’s essay appears in Figure 19.2.
Pages 505–508
Study the three suggestions for actively reading an argument, which
include highlighting various parts of the argument and writing a
summary after you’ve completed your reading. This section also
examines strategies for analyzing and evaluating an argument. Pay
close attention to the points covered here, which include reflecting on
the writer’s purpose, the intended audience, definitions of key terms,
the writer’s credibility, and the quality of the support, based on the
reasons and evidence provided. The information on pages 507–508,
including Tables 19.1 and 19.2, offer useful suggestions for
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recognizing faulty reasoning, whether you’re reading someone else’s
argument or constructing your own.
The following are a few additional examples of the fallacies that the
text discusses: - Circular reasoning, sometimes known as “begging the question”:
Because women are so emotional, they express their emotions
more quickly than men. (You may not use the same premise for
both the cause and its effect—emotions cause emotions.) - Hasty or faulty generalization: I’ve talked to several people in
Minnesota and thereby discovered that Minnesota is in favor of
handgun laws. (This judgment or conclusion about the views of
an entire state is based on insufficient or inadequate evidence.) - Sweeping generalization: All Italians like pasta and drink Chianti.
(Without sufficient evidence, this assertion illogically applies a
characteristic of some Italians to the entire ethnic group.) - False analogy: Just as the British Empire depended on their
colonies, modern corporations depend on trade with different
nations. (Comparison of things that have little or nothing in
common, particularly no significant common points: The structure
of British colonialism isn’t comparable to international corporate
trade.) - Non sequitur: Because Marianne likes dining out, she’s an
accomplished cook. (Asserting that Marianne can cook merely
because she likes dining out incorrectly assumes that the one
causes the other. Indeed, one reason she likes dining out might
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be that she can’t cook well.) - Red herring: Some say that violence on television promotes
violence, but what little boy doesn’t like to play cops and robbers?
(This premise begins by pointing out the effect of watching TV
violence but then switches to a completely different idea, raising a
side issue about what boys like to do. The switch distracts the
audience from the actual point.) - Post hoc fallacy, also known as faulty cause-and-effect: “After
President Jones raised taxes, the rate of violent crime went up,
so he’s responsible for the rise in crime.” (This fallacy applies
whenever the writer assumes that events in a given sequence
are related in some significant way, merely because one
immediately followed the other. Here the writer concludes without
evidence that the first event caused the second event [raising
taxes caused the increased crime rate].) - Either-or fallacy: If you don’t support Second Amendment rights
to gun ownership, you’re opposed to the Constitution. (The writer
assumes there are only two choices applicable to the complex
situation—if you want to prove you support the Constitution, you
must support the Second Amendment—as if there were no other
options.)
Clearly, fallacies are assertions that contain some defect in reasoning,
thereby weakening the argument and calling the credibility of the
writer into question. Sometimes you may find it difficult to identify a
specific kind of fallacy, but you’ll know that something doesn’t quite
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add up. For this course, don’t spend too much time trying to
differentiate each kind. Instead, work on spotting statements that don’t
make sense, lack sufficient support, or don’t clearly connect to the
claim.
Once you’re familiar with these fallacies, look for faulty reasoning
when you read. Television or radio advertisements, political columns,
Internet discussion boards, and letters to the editor in the newspaper
are good places to find examples. Keep the list handy as you read,
and write down some examples.
Pages 509–520
To apply your hard-earned skills, you’ll read two essays. The first of
these is “Trigger Happy” by Jenny Jarvie. Jenny examines the use
and perhaps overuse of "trigger warnings" in material, specifically
content presented in college courses. The next essay, "The Trigger
Warning Myth" by Aaron R. Hanlon takes a different approach. In an
essay that set out to refute Jarvie, he defends the use of trigger
warnings. While analyzing both essays, you may find it interesting to
consider what you’ve learned about trigger warnings, and also your
own opinion on the issue. In this debate, where do your sentiments
lie?
Required Journal Entry 16: Planning Your Argument
READING ASSIGNMENT
Open the word-processor doc you started for entry 13, then begin entry 16. Be
sure to format your entry properly and complete each part.
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Required Journal Entry 16: Planning Your Argument
Essay
This journal entry will help you begin to plan, research, and organize
your paper. Choose one of the following topics for your argument
essay.
Each topic focuses on a current problem that many students face.
The high cost of college or student loan debt
The lack of proper nutrition
Low minimum wage
Please note that both topics are very broad, so you should narrow
your chosen topic appropriately to suit your purpose and interest as
well as the research and length requirements. Use the Journal Entry
16 Argument Essay Outline Worksheet to help you complete this
entry.
Review the section entitled “Analyze the Basic Components of an
Argument” in Chapter 19 in your textbook. Once you’ve chosen your
topic and identified your issue, you need to develop support.
According to your text, the three common types of support for an
argument are “reasons, evidence, and emotional appeals.”
Follow the process outlined below, and fill in each element of the
outline:
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i. State your claim
a. Identify the type of claim (fact, value, or policy).
b. Explain your purpose or goal for your research paper.
ii. Identify your reasons
a. Reason 1
b. Reason 2
c. Reason 3
iii. Start your research to develop support for your claim (provide at
least two examples of each)
a. Support your reasons with evidence - Facts*
- Statistics*
- Expert opinions*
- Examples*
- Personal Experiences
b. Identify your emotional appeals - Appeal to needs*
- Appeal to values*
- Cite your sources using APA citation and documentation format (that
is, parenthetical citations and a list of references).
To research effectively and efficiently, use the Expanded Academic
ASAP database in Penn Foster’s digital library.
Key Points
READING ASSIGNMENT
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Key Points
An argument is a development pattern that presents a claim and
puts forward logic, reasons, and evidence to support that claim.
An argument is centered around an issue, something about which
people hold differing points of view.
The claim is the point the writer is trying to prove; it can be a
claim of fact, a claim of value, or a claim of policy.
The ideas and material intended to back up the claim are the
support in an argument.
Three types of support are reasons, evidence, and emotional
appeals.
A refutation or rebuttal presents opposing viewpoints by finding
inaccuracies, irrelevance, or weaknesses in the other’s argument.
The writer may acknowledge or accommodate an opposing point
of view when the opponent’s argument is too strong to refute.
An argument paper ends with a conclusion that is consistent with
and reinforces the writer’s claim.
Exercise: Reading Arguments
Respond to the following based on your reading.
- Complete Exercise 19.2.
- Review the essay by Jenny Jarvie in Chapter 19. Under
“Understanding the Reading” on page 514, respond to all four
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items. - Under “Analyzing the Writer’s Technique” respond to all five
items. - Under “Responding to the Reading” respond to all four items.
Exercise Answer Key:
Exercise: Reading Arguments
1. - Reasons: To provide an aesthetically pleasing environment and
to help teach responsibility. Evidence: Children feel more relaxed
and learn better when they’re in an aesthetically appealing
environment. Further, children learn to be responsible and
observe the cycle of life and death when they take care of small
animals. - Reason: To enable staff to prepare hot, healthy lunches for
snacks for children. Evidence: A microwave oven provides a fast
way to heat food. Many healthy foods require heating to make
them appealing to children. Some children bring their lunches
from home, and a microwave oven will enable the staff to
accommodate heatable items in these lunches. - Reasons: To provide students with ample choices of reading
material and to stimulate two senses at once, thereby facilitating
learning. Evidence: Studies show that children who read along
with audiobooks pick up new words faster than children who only
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read print books. - Reason: To help children learn to read.Evidence: The Dr. Seuss
books have been used in preschools and elementary schools for
many years; they provide an imaginative and phonics-based
means of language acquisition for young children. Researchers
advocate the type of rhyme and repetition found in Dr. Seuss
books. - Reason: To help children to learn to use current technology.
Evidence: Children who learn to use computers at an early age
do better academically; tablet computers are small, portable, and
have many inexpensive or free educational apps; tablet
computers can take the place of other school supplies, such as
paper and writing utensils.
2. - Jarvie argues that trigger warnings, which point to underlying
social problems of solipsism (self-obsession), should not be used.
An example sentence from the essay could be "Trigger warnings
are presented as a gesture of empathy, but the irony is they lead
only to more solipsism, an over-preoccupation with one's own
feelings- much to the detriment of society as a whole." - She relies mainly on facts and examples, but also offers expert
opinions, such as that of Susannah Breslin. - Some of her reasons can include
Trigger warnings have expanded beyond their original use
as a way of moderating internet forums and "now threaten
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…to define public discussion"
Trigger warnings are provoking a "wider cultural
hypersensitivity to harm and a paranoia about giving
offense."
The call for trigger warnings could expand - from college
courses to films, art exhibits, and newspapers - to the point
of absurdity. - Irksome: annoying; ramification: consequences,
results; inflammatory: provoking angry or violent
feelings; deterministic: predetermined, outside of human control;
solipsism; overemphasis on the self; unwieldy: difficult to
manage, cumbersome
3. - The issue is the value of trigger warnings. Jarvie makes 2 types
of claims: claims of fact, for example, that there is little evidence
that words are triggers or "how warnings might help" and claims
of value, for example, that trigger warnings are pernicious
because they discourage people from engaging with ideas and
encourage solipsism. The article stops short of making a claim
of policy (that trigger warnings should not be used), though this
claim can be inferred. - Jarvie's intended audience is educated, well-informed adults,
probably those who attended college. Her level of diction, her
wide range of examples, and her depth of analysis are intended
for people who want to be informed about (and take part in)
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intellectual debates. - The Onion is a satirical online newspaper/magazine and video
news network. It does not report any real news, but rather offers
satirical, sometimes crude, takes on the issues of the day. Jarvie
would argue that those who are hypersensitive should probably
stay away from The Onion. - Jarvie appeals not only to the value of free speech but also to the
importance of intellectual inquiry, open discussion as a means of
education, openness to new ideas and alternative viewpoints,
and a willingness to wrestle with difficult issues as a part of a
person's emotional and intellectual growth. - Ad hominem, one that attacks the opponent rather than her
position on the issue. (Note, that Jarvie does not make this
appeal, but rather quotes a source that does.)
4
1-4. Answers will vary, but possible reasons trigger warnings could be
helpful in the classroom include the fact that offering a trigger warning
doesn't take up much class time, may make students more attentive,
may raise issues, generate excellent discussion, and cause students
to think more critically about reading materials. Trigger warnings may
also help vulnerable students feel able to discuss issues with their
professors.
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11.2 Analyze and evaluate an argument
Writing Arguments
READING ASSIGNMENT
Read this assignment. Then, read Chapter 20 in your textbook.
In this assignment, you’ll learn the art of argument by practicing it. A
properly constructed argument makes a point, and the sharper the
point, the better the argument. An effective argument provides logical,
coherent, evidence-based support for a specific claim. The “Writing
Quick Start” exercise at the beginning of Chapter 20 establishes the
groundwork for writing an argument. Study the image of the poster,
and then create a thesis for a brief argument that would use evidence
and emotional appeals to support it.
Reading Highlights
Pages 522–529
This section defines the characteristics of argument essays,
expanding on the characteristics described in the previous chapter. To
begin with, make sure that your issue is controversial and narrowly
defined. Once you have your topic and have narrowed and defined
your focus, you can work on your claim. You must make a specific
claim that states your position clearly. It’s best to state your claim in a
strong thesis, presenting it early in the essay—preferably in the
introduction. Your claim may include a call for action.
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A good argument requires sound evidence that’s not only relevant, but
also well integrated into the organization of your argument.
Convincing evidence requires rigorous logic. Be sure you understand
the difference between inductive and deductive reasoning.
Inductive reasoning gathers evidence that points to a conclusion. For
example,
Evidence: The polar ice caps are melting.
Evidence: Glaciers around the world are melting.
Evidence: The hottest years on record have occurred over the
last decade.
Conclusion: Global warming is a real and pressing issue.
Deductive reasoning begins with a major premise, proceeds to a
minor premise, and then to a conclusion. Here’s an example:
Major premise: All birds have functional or vestigial feathered
wings.
Minor premise: Song sparrows have functional feathered wings.
Conclusion: Song sparrows are birds.
This is a rather simple example of a syllogism, which is the basic form
of a deductive argument.
Audience analysis is a major part of preparing an argument. Are you
approaching an agreeing, neutral, or disagreeing audience? It can be
challenging to sway an audience that’s neutral or on the fence. For the
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disagreeing audience, your text suggests finding some kind of
common ground between your position and the opposing position of
your audience. For example, “I know we seem poles apart on the
immigration issue, but I think we can agree that we want to live in a
fair and just nation.” Humor and wit can also help soften a cool or
unreceptive audience.
If your argument doesn’t stir a bit of passion in you, it’s unlikely to
move the emotions of your audience. Your objective in a compelling
argument is to move hearts and minds in favor of your argument by
appealing to your audience’s needs and values. On the other hand, a
sound argument can be made better by recognizing opposing points
of view, whether you acknowledge, accommodate, or refute them.
Tip: Graphic Organizer 20.1 provides a sample graphic organizer for
argument essays that feature the characteristics described in this
section.
Pages 529–532
You’ll have a chance to see these different characteristics skillfully
employed in the essay "The Problem with Saying 'All Lives Matter'"
byTyler Huckabee. The author recognizes the use of "All Lives Matter"
as being technically true, but just not a helpful argument. As you read
this essay, study the highlights and margin notes to see how different
elements of argument are used.
Pages 532–535
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Read the argument by writer-columnist William Safire, “Abolish the
Penny.” While the piece is cleverly written and laced with humor, don’t
assume Safire isn’t serious about his thesis. When you assess his
argument, ask yourself if his claims seem to be fact-based and if they
support a sound argument in favor of abolishing the penny. When
you’ve finished reading the essay, study the graphic organizer that
immediately follows it.
Pages 536–541
Because your final exam for this unit will be an argument essay,
carefully study the steps outlined in the guided writing assignment
section in this chapter. The topic for your exam will be assigned, but
you may find it useful to practice using one of the topics suggested in
this guided writing section.
Pages 542–546
Read “Pull the Plug on Explicit Lyrics” by James Sturm. You may well
find the topic interesting, if only because it wrestles with a
controversial thesis. As usual, the highlights should be helpful. Note
Sturm’s thesis statement. Note that after accommodating possible
refutations of his thesis, he gets specific in paragraph 7. There he sets
us up to consider three opposing viewpoints, on which he elaborates
in paragraphs 8 and 9.
Required Journal Entry 17: Recognizing Your Opposition
READING ASSIGNMENT
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Open the word-processor doc you started for entry 13, then begin entry 17. Be
sure to format your entry properly and complete each part.
Identify: Identify and define the three ways you can recognize
opposing views in your argument. In your own words, explain why it’s
valuable to include the opposition in your essay. (Minimum 1
paragraph, 6 sentences)
Reflect: Read William Safire’s essay “Abolish the Penny” in Chapter
20 of your textbook and review the Graphic Organizer 20.2 that
immediately follows it. In your opinion, does acknowledging his
opposition strengthen or weaken Safire’s argument? Explain.
(Minimum 1 paragraph, 6 sentences)
Key Points
READING ASSIGNMENT
Key Points
It is usually necessary to read an argument at least twice in order
to understand the ideas presented.
Before reading an argument, think about the title, which may
indicate the issue and claim; also consider the issue before
reading.
Pre-reading analysis also includes identifying the original source
of publication and its bias and audience.
Your first reading of an argument should be for an initial
impression.
The second reading should include annotating the claim,
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reasons, and key supporting evidence.
As you analyze, consider the writer’s purpose and credibility, the
intended audience, the reasons and evidence used, and
definitions of key terms.
A critical analysis also includes identifying emotional appeals and
evaluating opposing viewpoints.
You should look for fallacies in the writer’s reasoning, which can
weaken the argument and undermine the claim being made.
Some examples of fallacies include circular reasoning, faulty or
sweeping generalization, false analogy, non-sequitur, red herring,
faulty cause-and-effect, and either-or fallacy.
Exercise: Writing Arguments
Respond to the following based on your reading. - Complete Exercise 20.1.
- Complete Exercise 20.2.
- Complete Exercise 20.3.
- Complete Exercise 20.4.
- Review the “Students Write” essay by James Sturm. Then,
complete the following:
a. Respond to all three items under “Analyzing the Writer’s
Technique.”
b. Respond to all five items under “Thinking Critically about
Argument.”
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c. Respond to all three items under “Responding to the
Reading.”
Exercise Answer Key:
Exercise: Writing Arguments
1.
Possible answers are given for all five topics. Read through all the
possible answers to extend your understanding of this exercise. - The lottery in your home state; analysis of how the lottery is
promoted in one state.
Background: How many states have lotteries; how much money
is raised; moral objections to state lotteries. - Privacy in the workplace or on the Internet; security of Internet
transactions and accounts; corporate access or personal
information with individual’s knowledge.
Background: Define the networks to be discussed; examples of
privacy violations; relevant court cases. - A specific speech code on a specific campus; an incident or
series of incidents that might justify speech codes.
Background: Reasons for speech codes; purposes of typical
speech codes; number of campuses that have enacted speech
codes. - Controversy over displaying a crèche on public property at
Christmas; attempts to display symbols meaningful to different
religions.
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Background: Interpretations of what constitutes a religious
symbol, relevant U.S. Supreme Court rulings. - Mandatory drug testing for members of particular professions
(e.g., hospital workers, train engineers, police officers);
mandatory testing of athletes for the use of steroids; mandatory
testing for a specific drug.
Background: Laws and company policies mandating drug testing;
effects of drugs on job performance; relevant constitutional
issues.
2. - a. While many parents approve of government control of
pornography on the Internet, such controls may violate the
First Amendment right to free speech.
b. Pornography is so readily available to children on the
Internet that the government must pass legislation to control
it. - a. Limiting immigration may open up more jobs to unemployed
citizens.
b. While the government needs to control immigration, controls
should be flexible so that people who can make valuable
contributions to our society will be admitted. - a. Strict controls on campaign spending would very likely
decrease the number of political advertisements on
television.
b. Laws limiting the amount of money a politician can raise and
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spend are violations of First Amendment rights and shouldn’t
be enacted. - a. Computer literacy probably should be a mandatory
requirement for most job applicants in the twenty-first
century; every college graduate should be required to
demonstrate proficiency on the computer.
b. College students, who will need to use computers in all fields
and professions, should be required to demonstrate
computer literacy to graduate. - a. Because they promote exercise and competitive spirit, sports
are among the best activities children can engage in.
b. Sports get inactive children away from the TV and into the
fresh air; therefore, parents should encourage their children
to engage in competitive sports.
3.
Possible answers are given. - a. Urge readers to call school boards to insist on sex education
classes.
b. Contrast statistics on teen pregnancy for schools with sex
education classes versus schools without such classes; cite
expert opinion in favor of sex education; narrate testimonials
from teens who have benefited from sex education classes.
c. Appeal to the common desire to protect teens but argue that
they should be protected from pregnancy and sexual
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disease, not from information; cite persuasive facts and
statistics. - a. Urge readers to write to companies that advertise during
shows which portray violence unrealistically, arguing the
need for action.
b. Present examples of the real toll violence takes on victims
and their families; contrast with unrealistic examples from TV
shows; cite examples of “copycat” crimes.
c. Establish a common ground (the desire to reduce violent
crime); provide some examples as in b, as well as the results
of studies that show an increase in violence correlated with
increased television viewing. - a. Provide advice on ways to reduce the hours that some
children spend on computers and to increase their
involvement with social activities.
b. Provide expert testimony on and examples of children who
experience negative consequences from their exclusive
involvement with computers.
c. Concede that children need to be knowledgeable about
using computers, but argue that social skills are needed as
well.
4.
Claim 2. Possible opposing arguments:
Portraying violence more realistically on television will desensitize
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people to it, not deter them from it. Response: Refute by noting
that portraying the effects of actual violence has deterred crime
and changed people’s minds, citing such examples as televised
images of the Vietnam War and the Civil Rights movement.
Violent images have no effect on people who commit violent
crimes. Response: Accommodate by noting that while realistic
portrayals of violence will have no effect on hardened criminals,
they’ll keep some people from becoming criminals, or refute by
citing studies that show a high crime rate among heavy television
viewers.
Claim 3. Possible opposing arguments:
Children have many opportunities to interact with other people on
the Internet. Response: Accommodate by pointing out that
interaction with strangers on the Internet can be valuable but
should be limited, or refute by noting the uncertainty and possible
dangers of interacting with strangers on the Internet.
Children who take advantage of all the computer has to offer
learn more than children with a more active social life. Response:
Acknowledge by conceding that children can learn much from
playing educational computer games and surfing the Internet as
well as from playing with other children.
5a. - Sturm’s thesis statement clearly states his position on the issue
of explicit song lyrics. It suggests that Sturm will present negative
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effects as reasons to support his thesis. The thesis statement
doesn’t mention lack of government regulation or critiques of
Sturm’s position. - Sturm might have offered statistics, quotations by experts on the
issue, or comparisons with other types of lyrics. - Sturm doesn’t offer a precise definition of “explicit lyrics.” He does
offer examples of content of explicit lyrics in paragraph 4.
Readers may need a more precise definition to agree or disagree
with Sturm’s position.
5b. - Sturm regards explicit lyrics as harmful and detrimental to
children. Possible words and phrases to highlight include hateful
content (3), repulsive ideas (4), and music that fuels negative and
harmful thoughts (5). - Sturm uses both fact and opinion, but the essay relies heavily on
opinion. Facts: 2. Opinions: 3–5. - Sturm’s audience is the general public, possibly parents of
children under 16. - “Explicit music” is a euphemism for music with lyrics about sex or
violence. 5. Sturm appeals to the need to protect the innocent
and values of gentlemanliness and social constraint.
5c. - Answers will vary.
- Answers will vary.
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11.3 Effectively use techniques of drafting, evaluating,
and revising to create a sound written argument
Essay: Argument
READING ASSIGNMENT
Your project must be submitted as a Word document (.docx, .doc)*. Your
project will be individually graded by your instructor and therefore may take up
to five to seven days to grade. Be sure that each of your files contains the
following information:
Your name
Your student ID number
The exam number
Your email address
To submit your graded project, follow these steps:
Log in to your student portal.
Click on Take Exam next to the lesson you’re working on.
Find the exam number for your project at the top of the Project Upload
page.
Follow the instructions provided to complete your exam.
Be sure to keep a backup copy of any files you submit to the school!
Argument
People argue all the time—over what movie to see, what to have for
dinner, who to vote for. People generally have strong opinions, and
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many don’t hesitate to express them. Your friend doesn’t want to see
the same movie you do because he doesn’t like gory horror. Your
partner wants to eat at a restaurant that serves healthy food. Your
coworker won’t vote for any candidate who doesn’t support universal
healthcare.
Your argument essay is an amplified version of those types of
arguments you have with family, friends, and coworkers each day.
The difference is that you’ll be conducting research and using the
information you find to explain a problem and then provide a solution.
The argument essay is 1,600–1,800 words and must incorporate a
minimum of 4 secondary sources.
There is no graded prewriting assignment for your argument essay.
However, your Journal Part 3 entries are designed to help you write
your argument. If you would like feedback on your topic, reasons, or
research, you may submit Journal Part 3 before you submit your
argument.
Assignment Objectives
Use prewriting, drafting, revising, and editing to write formal,
college-level essays
Distinguish between different patterns of development
Apply an appropriate pattern of development to a specific
purpose and audience
Write effective thesis statements
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Develop paragraphs using topic sentences, adequate detail,
supporting evidence, and transitions
Employ responsible research methods to locate appropriate
secondary sources
Quote, paraphrase, and summarize secondary source material
correctly and appropriately
Use APA (American Psychological Association) citation and
documentation style to reference secondary source material
correctly and appropriately
Apply the conventions of standard written American English to
produce correct, well-written essays
Topic
Choose one of the following topics. Each topic focuses on a current
problem that many students face.
The high cost of college or student loan debt
The lack of proper nutrition
Low minimum wage
You may narrow the focus of your topic as you see fit.
Purpose and Audience
The purpose of your essay is to identify, define, and analyze the
problem, and then provide a solution to address it. You will use the
third-person point of view.
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Your audience is made up of your fellow Penn Foster classmates.
Many will agree with you, while others will disagree. You need to
present evidence to support your analysis and solution, and convince
your audience through the strength of your argument and the
feasibility of your solution, to side with you.
Research Requirement
You are required to use a minimum of four secondary sources in your
essay. Use the Research Writing and Citation and Documentation
webinar, Journal Entry 16, and the Argument Essay Research
Worksheet to help start your research and organize your essay.
The required secondary sources are
At least two articles from Penn Foster’s digital library database,
Expanded Academic ASAP
At least one non-profit or government organization (online or
print). Look for website domains .org, .edu, and .gov.
One source that you choose.
Remember that all sources, no matter where they come from, should
be evaluated for accuracy and validity. You may use more than four
sources, but you should avoid using more than six. Borrowing too
much from too many sources will overwhelm your voice in your essay
and negatively affect your grade. It could also lead to plagiarism.
Process
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Course Version: 3 - Once you’ve chosen your topic, use the Guided Writing
Assignment in Chapter 20 in your textbook to help you begin
prewriting. As you begin your research, review your reading from
Chapter 22, “Finding Sources, Taking Notes, and Synthesizing
Ideas,” to find and evaluate secondary sources. Required Journal
Entry 16 will also help you to narrow your topic, write a working
thesis, identify your reasons, and start your research. - Use the Organizing & Drafting section of the Guided Writing
Assignment of Chapter 20 to develop your thesis statement,
choose a method of organization, create an outline or graphic
organizer, and begin drafting your essay.
Review Chapter 23 in your text, “Drafting, Revising, and Formatting a
Research Project,” as you draft your essay to ensure that you are
incorporating your sources accurately and responsibly. Remember to
include the sources you use in your essay on your list of references.
You will be using APA citation and documentation style to give credit
to your sources. See the APA style section in Chapter 23 of your
textbook. - Use the Revising flowchart in Chapter 20 to revise your draft. As
part of this stage, review the purpose and requirements for this
assignment to ensure that you’ve fulfilled them. - Follow the steps for editing and proofreading included in Chapter
20 to correct and polish your essay before you submit.
To help you write your research paper, review the sample argument
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essay, “Pull the Plug on Explicit Lyrics” by James Sturm located in
Chapter 20 of your textbook. The essay is annotated to help you see
how the student crafted his argument and incorporated his sources.
The sample APA-style essay “Schizophrenia: Definition and
Treatment” in Chapter 23 in your text illustrates in-text (parenthetical)
citation and a list of references.
Rubric
Argument Essay
Traits of Good Writing Review "Writing a
Paper Using Sources" for a complete
explanation of the rating you earned for
each trait as well as references you can
study to improve your writing skills.
Skill
Realized
Skill not
Developing
Skill
Emerging
Not
Shown
Ideas & Content The writer provided a
clear thesis statement and had a clear
stance on one side of the issue. There is
a clear argument provided with
appropriate supporting details and
evidence.
25 23 21 19 17 12 0
Organization There is a clear
introduction with a thesis, body, and
conclusion, with body paragraphs
incorporating other patterns of
development coherently.
20 18 17 16 14 12 0
Incorporation of Source Material The
writer used the correct required sources.
The writer used APA format to
incorporate secondary source material
accurately and responsibly. The writer
used signal phrases, parenthetical
citation, and provided a list of works cited.
15 13 11 10 8 6 0
Voice The writer interacts with the
assigned audience using appropriate,
consistent point of view, tone, and
evidence. The writer maintains a clear
stance on the topic.
10 9 8 7 6 4 0
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Word Choice The writer makes correct
verb and word choices, defines any terms
that may be unfamiliar, and conveys a
clear message.
10 9 8 7 6 4 0
Grammar & Sentences The writer used
correct grammar, spelling, punctuation,
and sentence structure. The essay was
free of any typographical errors.
10 9 8 7 6 4 0
Format The writer meets the required
length (1,600–1,800 words) and uses a
standard font and margins. All of the
required header information is present.
10 9 8 7 6 4 0
Key Points
READING ASSIGNMENT
Key Points
The American Psychological Association (APA) style uses in-text
citations to identify sources within the body of a paper, and a list
of references at the end of the paper to fully document those
sources.
Research papers must include in-text citations for all material
paraphrased, summarized, or quoted from sources.
When creating an in-text citation, omit the word “page” or its
abbreviations.
Place the final punctuation after the closing parenthesis unless
the citation follows a block quotation.
If a quotation ends a sentence, insert the closing quotation marks
before the parentheses that enclose the page reference.
Use of a signal phrase is generally preferred to parenthetical intext citations.
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A signal phrase is one that introduces a quotation, paraphrase, or
summary. It includes a verb along with the name of the reference.
Exercise: Evaluating Sources
Respond to the following based on your reading. - What is a primary source?
- What is a secondary source?
- What is a reliable source?
Exercise Answer Key:
Exercise: Evaluating Sources - A primary source provides direct or firsthand evidence about an
event, object, person, or work of art. - A secondary source is one that was created later by someone
who did not experience first-hand or participate in the events or
conditions you're researching. - A reliable source is honest, accurate, and credible.
Lesson 11 Review
Self-Check
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Course Version: 3 - A judgment or conclusion about the views of an entire state based
on insufficient or inadequate evidence is what type of fallacy?
a. Sweeping generalization
b. Hasty generalization
c. Circular reasoning
d. False analogy - An effective argument must clearly state an issue, make a claim,
and offer
a. an opinion.
b. solutions.
c. several views.
d. support. - Statements that can be proved or verified are claims of
a. fact.
b. value.
c. policy.
d. emotion. - A statement that expresses an opinion or judgment about whether
one thing or idea is better than another is a claim of
a. fact.
b. emotion.
c. policy.
d. value. - Statements offering one or more solutions to a problem are claims
of
a. fact.
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b. value.
c. policy.
d. emotion. - Three common types of support are reasons, evidence, and
a. opinions.
b. emotional appeals.
c. opposing viewpoints.
d. rebuttals. - Jack writes an argumentative essay to support raising the minimum
wage. In his essay, Jack recognizes and argues against opposing
viewpoints. Jack is using
a. alternatives.
b. appeal.
c. refutation.
d. distraction. - Jason writes an essay claiming dogs are the best pets for humans
and backs his claim up with several general statements to support his
claim. However, reasons alone aren't enough. They must be backed
by
a. passion.
b. evidence.
c. personal observations.
d. solutions. - Facts, statistics, examples, expert opinion, and observations from
personal experience are all forms of
a. reasons.
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b. emotional appeals.
c. claims.
d. evidence. - _ reasoning begins with evidence and moves to a
conclusion.
a. Deductive
b. General
c. Inductive
d. Evidentiary - Justine's essay makes the claim that professional athletes
shouldn't be paid such vast amounts because they waste it on
frivolous things. She cites news stories about an athlete spending
thousands of dollars on a gilded toilet and another about the millions
another athlete spends on luxury travel and parties. This claim is an
example of a
a. sweeping generalization.
b. hasty generalization.
c. sufficient reason.
d. careful analysis. - The easiest audience to write for is a/an
a. neutral audience.
b. disagreeing audience.
c. agreeing audience.
d. wavering audience. - When writing an argument for a disagreeing audience, how should
you focus the essay?
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a. Find some kind of common ground between your position and
the opposing position.
b. Emphasize the importance of the issue or shared values.
c. Clear up misunderstandings readers may have.
d. Reinforce your shared viewpoint and urge readers to take a
specific action. - _ to readers’ needs and values can help support and
strengthen a sound argument.
a. Emotional appeals
b. Statistics related
c. Opinions directed
d. Opposition - A good way to refute a viewpoint is by
a. demonstrating the weakness of the opponent’s argument.
b. making an emotional appeal to the audience.
c. minimizing reader's concerns to your viewpoint.
d. disregarding it as a valid point of view. - _ are principles or qualities that readers consider
important, worthwhile, or desirable.
a. Needs
b. Values
c. Claims
d. Conclusions - _ reasoning begins with statements that are generally
accepted as true. Once these premises are accepted as true, the
conclusion must also be true.
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a. Inductive
b. Emotional
c. Deductive
d. Evidentiary - John is writing an essay on the dangers of inappropriate use of
child restraints. He bases most of his evidence on research published
by a national testing agency and includes emotional appeals gathered
from accident witness accounts. John is using _ sources.
a. tertiary
b. popular
c. primary
d. secondary - John is writing an essay on the dangers of inappropriate use of
child restraints. One of his resources is a book that reviews and
interprets child restraint testing research from various agencies. John
is using sources.
a. popular
b. emotional
c. secondary
d. primary
20.
A/An source is honest, accurate, and credible.
a. relevant
b. popular
c. reliable
d. applicable
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Self-Check Answer Key - Hasty generalization
Explanation: Hasty or faulty generalization is a judgment or
conclusion about the views of an entire state based on insufficient
or inadequate evidence.
Reference: Section 11.1 - support.
Explanation: An effective argument must clearly state an issue,
make a claim, and offer support. In many cases an argument also
recognizes or argues against opposing viewpoints.
Reference: Section 11.1 - fact.
Explanation: Claims of fact are statements that can be proved or
verified. Claims of fact in argument essays focus on facts that are
in dispute or not yet well established.
Reference: Section 11.1 - value.
Explanation: Claims of value are statements that express an
opinion or judgment about whether one thing or idea is better or
more desirable than another. Claims of value are subjective and
cannot be proved definitively.
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Reference: Section 11.1 - policy.
Explanation: Claims of policy are statements offering one or more
solutions to a problem. Often the verbs should, must, or ought
appear in the claim. Claims of policy are subjective and cannot be
proved definitively.
Reference: Section 11.1 - emotional appeals.
Explanation: Three common types of support are reasons,
evidence, and emotional appeals.
Reference: Section 11.1 - refutation.
Explanation: A refutation recognizes and argues against
opposing viewpoints. Refutation involves finding a weakness in
the opponent’s argument by casting doubt on the opponent’s
reasons or by questioning the accuracy, relevance, and
sufficiency of the opponent’s evidence.
Reference: Section 11.1 - evidence.
Explanation: Each reason must be supported by evidence and is
sometimes accompanied by emotional appeals. The evidence
provided in an argument usually consists of facts, statistics,
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examples, expert opinion, and observations from personal
experience.
Reference: Section 11.1 - evidence.
Explanation: The evidence provided in an argument usually
consists of facts, statistics, examples, expert opinion, and
observations from personal experience.
Reference: Section 11.1 - Inductive
Explanation: Inductive reasoning begins with evidence and
moves to a conclusion.
Reference: Section 11.2 - sweeping generalization.
Explanation: Drawing a conclusion that applies to all cases
without exception is making a sweeping generalization. Justine's
claims can be refuted by using evidence of high-paid athletes
who spend their money to start charities, purchase homes for
their parents, or invest most of it for their post-professional days.
Reference: Section 11.2