CHAPTER 13 OUTLINE
- Industrial/Organizational (I/O) Psychology: The Study of Human Behavior in the Workplace
- I/O psychologists strive to increase the dignity and performance of workers and the
organizations where they labor - Among other issues, I/O psychologists study worker motivation and satisfaction, job
performance, leadership, occupational hazards, personnel selection, and diversity in
organizations
13-1. Choosing a Career
13-1a. Examining family influences and personal characteristics - Personal characteristics
a. Those with secure attachment and a solid sense of self-efficacy find it easier to make
career choices
b. Intelligence predicts the likelihood of entering particular occupations
c. In many occupations, special talents are more important than general intelligence
1) Specific aptitudes may include creativity, artistic or musical talent, mechanical
ability, clerical skill, mathematical ability, and persuasive talents
2) Social skills are particularly valuable
d. Interests and personality should be considered in career planning - Family influences
a. Individual career choices are influenced by family background
b. Family background influences career choice for several reasons
1) Level of education
2) Socioeconomic status
3) Parenting practices play a role
13-1b. Researching Job Characteristics - Sources of career information
a. Good reference for occupational literature is Occupational Outlook Handbook
b. More detailed information can usually be found online - Essential information about occupations
a. The nature of the work
b. Working conditions
c. Job entry requirements
d. Ongoing training or education
e. Potential earnings
f. Potential status
g. Opportunities for advancement
h. Intrinsic job satisfaction
i. Future outlook
j. Security - Experts agree that the future belongs to those who are better educated
13-1c. Using psychological tests for career decisions - Occupational interest inventories measure your interests as they relate to various jobs or
careers - There are three widely used tests
a. Strong Interest Inventory (SII)
b. Self-Directed Search (SDS)
c. Kuder Career Search with Placement Match - Occupational interest inventories do not attempt to predict whether you would be successful
in various occupations but focus on predicted job satisfaction - Test results may inspire you to investigate career possibilities that you had never thought of
before - Several cautions worth noting
a. You may score high on some occupations you know you would hate
b .Don't let the test make career decisions for you
c. Some gender bias on most inventories
13-1d. Taking Important Considerations into Account - You have the potential for success in a variety of occupations
- Be cautious about choosing a career solely on the basis of salary
- There are limits on your career options
- Career choice is a developmental process that extends throughout life
- Some career decisions are not easily undone
13-2. The Changing World of Work
13-2a. Workplace Trends - Work is an activity that produces something of value for others
- Important work-related trends
a. Technology is changing the nature of work
b. New work attitudes are required
c. Lifelong learning is a necessity
d. Independent workers are increasing
e. The boundaries between work and home are breaking down
f. The highest job growth will occur in the professional and service occupations
g. Job sharing is becoming more common
13-2b. Education and Earnings - Generally, the more you learn, the more you earn
- However, a college diploma is no guarantee of a great job
- Underemployment is settling for a job that does not fully utilize one’s skills, abilities, and
training - Current employers are not happy with the academic skills of many employees
- A majority of U.S. employers say that about a third of their workers do not meet the writing
requirements of their positions
13-2c. The Changing Workforce - The labor force consists of all those who are employed as well as those who are currently
unemployed but looking for work - Demographic changes
a. Larger proportion of women in the workforce
b. Workforce also becoming more ethnically diverse - Today's workplace for women and minorities
a. Both groups continue to face subtle obstacles to success
1) Main obstacle is job segregation (job-typing by gender, race)
2) Frequently passed over for promotion; this effect is referred to as the glass ceiling, an
invisible barrier that prevents most women and ethnic minorities from advancing to
the highest levels of occupations
b. A lone woman or minority person can become a token, a symbol of all the members of
that group
c. Tokens, because of the feeling that they are accountable for the actions of their whole
group, may experience performance pressure
d. Both groups have fewer opportunities to observe, emulate relevant role models
e. Sexual harassment at work more likely to be a problem for women than men - The challenges of change
a. Cultural differences exist in managing time, people, identification with work, and
decision-making
b. Some individuals feel that they are personally paying the price of prejudice in workplace
1) Perception can cause resentment
2) Recognizing the problem, some companies offer diversity training programs
c. Negative feelings about affirmative action may lead to negative attributions toward
women, ethnic minorities
13-3. Coping with Occupational Hazards
13-3a. Job Stress - Sources of stress on the job
a. There are various types of work-related stressors
1) Long work hours
2) Lack of privacy, high noise levels, unusual hours, pressure of deadlines, lack of
control over one’s work, inadequate resources, and perceived inequities
3) Environmental conditions (such as extreme temperatures)
4) Fear of downsizing, losing benefits
5) Office politics and conflicts
6) Adapting to changing technology
7) "Underwork" can also be stressful
b. Women may experience sex discrimination, sexual harassment at higher rates than men
c. African Americans, ethnic minorities cope with racism and discrimination
d. Workers from lower socioeconomic levels typically work in more dangerous jobs
e. Keita and Hurrell proposed four factors that play critical role in the development of stress
reactions
1) More workers are employed in service industries
2) The economy is unpredictable
3) Rapid changes in computer technology tax workers’ abilities to keep up
4) The workplace is becoming more diverse
f. Karasek contends that there are two key factors in occupational stress
1) psychological demands
2) Amount of decision control
i) The greatest stress is experienced in jobs that feature high psychological demands
and low decision control - Effects of job stress
a. Include increase in industrial accidents and absenteeism, poor job performance, high
turnover, etc.
b. Prolonged stress can lead to burnout, characterized by exhaustion, cynicism, and poor job
performance
c. Possible effects include physical and psychological problems - Dealing with job stress
a. Three avenues of attack for dealing with job stress
1) Interventions at individual level
2) Interventions at organizational level
3) Intervention at individual-organizational interface
b. Workers from lower socioeconomic groups typically experience more job stress,
receive less attention through stress management programs
13-3b. Sexual harassment occurs when employees are subjected to unwelcome sexually oriented
behavior - According to the law, there are two types of sexual harassment
a. Submission to sex a condition of hiring, advancement, etc. (quid pro quo)
b. Unwelcome sexual behavior creates hostile environment - Sexual harassment can take variety of forms (e.g., unsolicited and unwelcome flirting, sexual
advances, unappreciated dirty jokes) - According to experts, sexual harassment is an abuse of power by a person in authority
- Prevalence and consequences
a. More widespread than people realize
b. Experiencing sexual harassment can have negative effects on psychological and physical
health - Stopping sexual harassment
a. Researchers have developed two-factor model to predict occurrence
1) Two factors are individuals’ proclivity for sexual harassment and organizational
norms regarding acceptability of sexual harassment
2) Harassment most likely to occur when individual proclivity is high, organizational
norms are accepting
b. Responses to sexual harassment can be classified in four categories
1) Avoidance denial (self-focus and self-response)
2) Confrontation/negotiation (initiator focus, self-response)
3) Social coping (self-focus, supported response)
4) Advocacy seeking (initiator focus, supported response)
13-3c. Unemployment - Displaced workers are individuals who are unemployed because their jobs have disappeared
- Effects of unemployment
a. Can cause economic distress, health problems, psychological difficulties
b. Those laid off in middle age seem to find the experience most difficult
1) Typically have more financial responsibilities
2) Loss of insurance may jeopardize entire family’s health
3) Older workers typically remain out of work longer
4) Middle-aged workers feel highly involved in their work - Coping with unemployment
a. Support from friends, family is essential
b. Some companies offer programs for laid-off workers
13-4. Balancing Work and other Spheres of Life - Workaholism
a. Workaholics devote nearly all their time and energy to their jobs
b. There appear to be two types of workaholics
1) The enthusiastic workaholic works for the pure joy of it
2) The nonenthusiastic workaholic feels driven to work but reports low job enjoyment - Work and Family Roles
a. Dual-earner couples are the dominant family form in the U.S.
b. Working parents experience work-family conflict, or the feeling of being pulled in
multiple directions by competing demands from the job and family
c. To gain more control over their lives, some women are temporarily opting out of the
workforce; others are going into business for themselves
d. A number of factors contribute to positive outcomes associated with multiple roles,
including added income, social support, the experience of success, and buffering
13-5. Application: Getting Ahead in the Job Game
13-5a. Putting together a résumé - Must achieve goals without being flashy, gimmicky
- Basic guidelines
a. Use white, ivory, or beige paper
b. Eliminate typographical errors
c. Keep it short
d. Avoid use of complete sentences, word "I"
e. Avoid giving superfluous, personal information - Effective résumé will contain various elements
a. Heading with name, address, and phone number
b. Objective stating precisely the kind of position sought
c. Education listing degrees earned
d. Experience organized chronologically - An electronic résumé may be necessary in addition to the traditional paper version
13-5b. Finding companies you want to work for - Start with self-exploration to gain a picture of your personal qualities
- Learn about the characteristics of various occupations via relevant websites or visit your
Career Services office.
13-5c. Landing an interview - Traditional approach is to submit résumé and cover letter
- Use research about the company to make a case why you would be useful to the organization
- You might introduce yourself directly by phone and request an interview
13-5d. Polishing your interview technique - Interviewers’ ratings of applicants not necessarily based on job-relevant characteristics (e.g.,
appearance, nonverbal cues may be important) - Creating the right impression
a. Appear confident, enthusiastic, ambitious
b. Demeanor should be somewhat formal, reserved
c. Never give more information than interviewer requests
d. Don't interrupt, contradict interviewer
e. Don't criticize former employer
f. Advance preparation is crucial
g. Avoid discussion of salary in initial interview