speech

speech The research you’ll need to do for this assignment is simply research to give you the factual information you need to write your speech. As such your research will primary be from things like news sources, government documents, documents from the private sector, etc. 1 This report revises and expands an earlier report of the same title prepared by Charles H. Whittier, Specialist in Religion and Public Policy, former Government Division. Speechwriting in Perspec tive: A Brief Guide to Effective and Persuasive Communication Introduction 1 “Rhetoric,” wrote Aristotle, “is the power of determining in a particular case what are the available means of persuasi on.” This report revi ews some effective means for the rhetoric of persuasi ve communication in speeches written by congressional staff for Senators and Representatives. By speeches, this report means draft statements prepared for oral delive ry by Members. Such speeches are often prepared under the pressure of deadlines that leave minimal time for extensive revision. Moreover, they must often be dr afted in whole or part for Members who may have little opportunity to edit and amend them. The burdens of public office (as well as of campaigning) and the insistent demand for speeches of every kind for a variety of occasions require some degree of reliance on speechwriters, a reliance that is heightened by the limitations of time and the urgencies of the media. A speech thus “ghostwritten” should neve rtheless reflect the intention and even the style of the speaker. The best g hostwriters are prope rly invisible; they subordinate themselves to the speaker in such a way that the final product is effectively personalized in the process of actual communication. The only ways to achieve or even approach this ideal are pr actice and experience. This report seeks to provide some guidance for congressional st aff on the principles and practice of speechwriting. The suggestions offered herein, when combined with practice, attention to audience and occasion, and, mo st importantly, the Member’s attitudes, convictions, and style, can help create a speech that can be a “seamless garment” when delivered by the Member. Writing For The Spoken Word: The Distinctive Task of The Speechwriter Writing effective speeches requires a cons tant awareness of the distinction between the written and the spoken word: the speechwriter must learn to “write aloud.” While the best speeches read as well as they sound, the novice speechwriter should give priority to the ear and not the eye. His or her speech must be written to be heard, not read. CRS-2 2 George Orwell, “Politics and the English Language,” in Shooting an Elephant and Other Essays (New York: Harcourt Brace, 1950). 3 Edward Bernays, quoted in Mary G. Gotschall, “The Lost Art of Speechmaking,” Campaigns and Elections, vo l. 14, June-July, 1993, p. 48. 4 William E. Wiethoff, Writing the Speech (Greenwood, IN: Alistair Press, 1994), p. 15. This means that easy intelligibility should be a paramount concern, so that the listening span is not strained. One of the first rules of the speechwriting profession is that a sentence written to be heard should be simple, direct, and short. When the speechwriter “writes aloud,” George Orwell’s advice to cut out any word that can possibly be cut is helpful, so long as the resulting effect is clarity, and not verbal shorthand. 2 Ciceronian oratory on the one hand and Dick-and-Jane simplicity on the other are extremes to be avoided. Th e speechwriter thus f aces the ch allenge of crafting words that convey the speaker’s m eaning clearly, but that also draw on the rich nuance and texture of spoken English. The average spoken sentence runs from eight to 16 words; anything longer is considered more difficult for listeners to follow by ear, and according to one expert, may be too long for the average listener to absorb and analyze quickly. 3 By comparison, wr itten sentences of up to 30 words are easily understood by average readers. 4 Given these generally accepted limitati ons, what devices are available to the writer to make more complex sentences and speech wording accessible to the listener? Complex sentences can be clar ified by repeating key words and using simple connections. By numerous rhetorical techniques, the speaker states, restates, and states again in different ways, the central themes of the speech. Repetition and Variation Repetition with variation is a basic sp eechwriting tool used by many of the greatest speakers to emphasize key elem ents while avoiding monotony. Some examples follow. ! Martin Luther King’s “I have a dream” speech was a striking example of this technique, using th at phrase to introduce a series of his visions for a better future. ! Lincoln at Gettysburg emphasized the significance of the day’s events by restating the solemnity of the occasion in not fewer than three variations: “We cannot dedi cate, we cannot consecrate, we cannot hallow this ground, ...” ! Similarly, Winston Churchill’s World War II sp eeches used repetition with variation to build a powerful climax: “We shall fight in France and on the seas and oceans, we shall fight with growing confidence and growing strength in the air. We shall defend our island whatever the cost may be; we shall fight on the beaches and landing grounds, in fields, in streets and on the hills, ... we shall never surrender.” CRS-3 5 Judith Humphrey, “Writing Professional Speeches,” Vital Speeches of the Day, vol. 54, Mar. 15, 1988, p. 343. ! Franklin D. Roosevelt’s 1937 “O ne third of a Nation” speech imparted a sense of urgency by his deliberate repetition of a “here are” construction to describe c onditions in the country, followed again and again with “now”: Here is one-third of a nati on ill-nourished, ill-clad, ill-housed — NOW. Here are thousands upon thous ands of farmers wondering whether next year’s prices will meet their mortgage interest — NOW. Here are thousands upon thousands of men and women laboring for long hours in factories for inadequate pay — NOW. Cadence and Balance Another venerable rhetorical device is the use of cadence and balance in the spoken word. This is a part of speechwr iting where the speaker and the writer need cooperation to ensure success. The trad ition of public speaking in the English language owes much to the poetic traditi on, which was originally an oral tradition. As one observer noted, “the langua ge of the speech should also be poetic — replete with alliteration, meta phor, and other figures of speec h. Such adornments, far from being superfluous, enhance meaning and emphasize relationships among ideas.” 5 A s difficult to define as to achieve, cadence and balance impart movement and harmonious effect to any speech. Essentia lly a matter of ordering groups of words (and ideas) into rhythmic patterns, caden ce and balance can be attained by such classical rhetorical devices as the ones desc ribed below. Do not be put off by the classic Greek names of some of these rhetorical devices; in practice we use them naturally in conversati on and writing every day. Rhythmic Triads. The grouping of words into patterns of three can lead to a memorable effect, provided the device is not overused. Some notable examples from classic oratory include “ Veni, vidi, vici ”; “Never ... was so much owed by so many to so few”; “The kingdom, the power, and the glory ...”; “I have not sought, I do not seek, I re pudiate the s upport of ...”; “one third of a nation ill-clad, ill- nourished, ill-housed....” Parallelism. The linkage of similar words or ideas in a balanced construction that repeatedly uses the same grammatical form to convey para llel or coordinated ideas: “Bigotry has no head and cannot th ink; no heart and ca nnot feel;” “Charity beareth all things, believeth all things, hopeth all th ings, endureth all things.” Alliteration. The repetition of initial sounds in a series of words to give emphasis. For instance, “We need to return to that old-fashioned notion of competition — where substance, not subsidie s, determines the winner,” or, “... the nattering nabobs of negativism....”