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Martin Luther, of course, was not the only Protestant Reformer, and Germany was not the only place in Europe where the stirrings of theological turmoil erupted. In continental Europe, and in England, otherwise obscure preachers and teachers, because of the combination of the times in which they lived, the forcefulness of their teachings, and the receptions of their teachings, both positive and negative, men stamped their names in the history books as the leaders of one of the most important watershed events in the history of the world. People were discovering that the tradition-leaden teachings about God, the church, politics, science, medicine, music, art, and literature were inadequate to explain the richness of the world that was being newly discovered. Not only were new answers required, but new questions needed to be considered, and in the discipline of theology, there were men who were bold enough to challenge age-old teachings and suggest new ways of understanding humanity, and humanity’s relationship with the church and God. This week we will concentrate on the leaders on the continent; next week on England.
II) Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531)
When Luther’s ideas began to penetrate the thirteen Swiss cantons, several of the cantons broke from the Catholic church and became Protestant, the most important of which was the city-state of Zurich under the leadership of Ulrich Zwingli, who as the “People’s Priest,” bought fully into Luther’s reform program and began to steadily shift the city over to the practices of the new Protest church. In 1523, the city officially adopted Zwingli’s central ecclesiastical reforms and became the first Protestant state outside of Germany.
In comparison to Luther and Calvin, both of whom wrote a stultifying amount of stuff on every topic under the sun, Zwingli stuck to a single theme; if the OT or NT did not say something explicitly and literally, then no Christian should believe or practice it. In 1522, for instance, Zwingli mounted a protest against the fast at Lent, a standard Catholic practice. His argument: the NT says absolutely nothing about fasting at Lent so the practice is inherently unchristian.

There are two important shifts in Western religious experience that result from this position. No longer would the OT and NT be full of difficult and allegorical meanings; instead, these texts became something like statute law. The words meant what they said; any difficulty, contradiction, or obscure meaning was the fault of the reader and not the text. The literal reading of Christian scriptures meant that it was possible to have one and only one meaning of the text. Not only were practices not contained in Scriptures to be shunned, but practices, beliefs, and rules that were contained in the literal meaning of the OT and NT were to be adhered to absolutely and uncritically. This became the underpinning of the social theories and organization of radical Protestant and Puritan societies and later the foundational social organization of the English colonies in America.

Zwingli soon parted company with Martin Luther over major doctrinal issues; principally the nature of the Eucharist. Luther believed that the bread and wine of the Eucharist was spiritually (not physically) transformed into the body and blood of Christ, while Zwingli believed that the Eucharist only symbolized the body and blood of Christ. The disagreement between Luther and Zwingli was viewed as a political crisis of the highest order. An alliance between the German and Swiss states foundered on the theological dispute between Luther and Zwingli. In 1529, Philip invited both Luther and Zwingli to his castle in Marburg to hash out their differences. The two men, however, had very little in common, and their discussions ended in failure. Luther, for his part, thought Zwingli to be mad. Zwingli thought Luther to be hopelessly enmeshed in unsupportable Catholic doctrine. Their meeting in Marburg represents the last point in the Reformation at which the movement could have preserved some unity. After Marburg, unification of the various Protestant movements became impossible, and the new church fragmented into a thousand separate, quarrelling pieces within a few decades.

III) John Calvin (1509-1564)

The spirit of Zwinglianism reached its fullest development in the theology, political theories, and ecclesiastic thought of John Calvin who created the patterns and thought that would dominate Western culture throughout the modern period. American culture, in particular, is thoroughly Calvinist.

Calvin was originally a lawyer, but like Zwingli, he was saturated with the ideas of Renaissance humanism. He was dedicated to reform of the church and he got his chance to build a reformed church when the citizens of Geneva, Switzerland revolted against their rulers in the 1520’s. The Genevans, however, unlike the citizens of Zurich, Bern, Basel, and other cities that became Protestant, were not German-speakers but primarily French-speakers. The Protestant canton of Bern, however, was determined to see Protestantism spread throughout Switzerland. In 1533, Bern sent Protestant reformers to convert Geneva into a Protestant city; after considerable conflict, Geneva officially became Protestant in 1535.

Calvin was invited to Geneva to build the new Reformed church, and his efforts radically changed the face of Protestantism, for he directly addressed issues that early Reformers didn’t know how or didn’t want to answer.

His most important work involved the organization of church governance and the social organization of the church and the city. He was, in fact, the first major political thinker to model social organization entirely on biblical principles. At first his reforms did not go over well. He developed a catechism designed to impose doctrine on all the members of the church. He and Guillaume Farel (1489-1565) imposed a strict moral code on the citizens of Geneva, which was derived from a literal reading of Christian scriptures. The people of Geneva believed that they had thrown away one church only to see it replaced by an identical twin; in particular, they saw Calvin’s reforms as imposing a new form of papacy on the people, only with different names and different people.

So the Genevans tossed him out. In early 1538, Calvin and the Protestant reformers were exiled from Geneva. Calvin moved to Strasbourg where he began writing commentaries on the Bible and finished his massive account of Protestant doctrine, The Institutes of the Christian Church. Within these commentaries he developed all the central principles of Calvinism in his strict readings of the OT and NT. They are less an explanation of the Bible than a piece by piece construction of his theological, social, and political philosophy.

In 1540 a new crop of city officials in Geneva invited Calvin back to the city. He immediately helped to restructure municipal government so that clergy would be involved in municipal decisions, particularly in disciplining the populace. He imposed a hierarchy on the Genevan church and began a series of statute reforms to impose a strict and uncompromising moral code on the city.

By the mid-1550’s, Geneva became the most important Protestant center of Europe, for Protestants driven out of their native countries of France, England, Scotland, and the Netherlands all came to Geneva to take refuge. By the middle of the sixteenth century, between one-third and one-half of the city was made up of these foreign Protestants. In Geneva, these foreign reformers adopted the more radical Calvinist doctrines; most of them had arrived as moderate Reformers and left as thorough-going Calvinists. It is probably for this reason that Calvin’s brand of reform eventually became the dominant branch of Protestantism from the seventeenth century onwards.

The core of Calvinism is the Zwinglian insistence on the literal reading of Christian scriptures. Anything not contained explicitly and literally in these scriptures was to be rejected; on the other hand, anything that was contained explicitly and literally in these scriptures was to be followed unwaveringly. It is the latter point that Calvin developed beyond Zwingli’s model; not only should all religious belief be founded on the literal reading of Scriptures, but church organization, political organization, and society itself should be founded on this literal reading.

Following the history of the earliest church recounted in the New Testament book, The Acts of the Apostles , Calvin divided church organization into four levels:
Pastors: Five men who exercised authority over religious matters in Geneva;
Teachers: This was a group whose job it was to teach doctrine to the population.
Elders: The Elders were twelve men (after the twelve Apostles) who were chosen by the municipal council; their job was to oversee everything that everybody did in the city.
Deacons: Modeled after the Seven in Acts 6-8, the deacons were appointed to care for the sick, the elderly, the widowed and the poor.
The most important theological position that Calvin took was his formulation of the doctrine of predestination. The early church had struggled with this issue, and had decided that God had not predestined salvation for individuals. Salvation was in part the product of human choice. Calvin, on the other hand, built his reformed church on the concept that salvation was not a choice, but was rather pre-decided by God from the beginning of time. This mean that individuals were “elected” for salvation by God; this “elect” would form the population of the Calvinist church.

This view of human salvation is called either the “doctrine of the elect” or “the doctrine of living saints.” In Calvinist theology, a “saint” is a living, breathing human being who is guaranteed to gain salvation no matter what he or she does here on earth, although the elect obviously don’t engage in flagrant sin; not all good people were among the elect, but people with bad behavior were certainly not among the elect. It was incumbent on churches filled with living saints to only admit other living saints; this organizational principle was called voluntary associations. In time, the concept of voluntary associations would become the basis of civil society and later political society in Europe.

IV) Radical Reformation: Also known as the Left Wing of the Reformation and the Third Reformation, it includes all reforming elements not identified with the Magisterial Reformation. Common to all its participants was disappointment with moral aspects of territorial Protestantism and the rejection of some of its doctrines and institutions. Three main groupings of radicals have been identified: Anabaptists, Spiritualists, and Evangelical Rationalists.

A) Anabaptists: From Luther to twentieth century scholars, the opinion prevailed that Anabaptism began with revolutionaries and spiritualizers such as the Zwickau Prophets and Thomas Munzer and reached its logical conclusion with the violent Munsterites. In the 1940s Harold S Bender placed Anabaptist origins in the circle of Conrad Grebel, which left Zwingli’s reformation when they felt Zwingli compromised its biblical basis. From Zurich the movement was spread by missionaries from Switzerland to Austria and Moravia, South Germany, and the Low Countries. Its principal characteristics were discipleship, biblicism, and pacifism.

B) Swiss Anabaptism: Anabaptism in Switzerland developed from Zwingli’s early supporters, but who became disillusioned with Zwingli’s reform. Seeing the Bible as an alternative authority to Rome, the Grebel circle desired Zwingli to proceed rapidly to purify the city’s religious establishment of such corruptions as the Mass. When Zwingli allowed the city council to determine the speed of reformation, it seemed to the radicals the substitution of one oppressive authority for another. These included the Grebel circle, which gathered in the home of Andreas Castelberger for Bible study, and priests from the outlying towns of Zurich. They soon joined forces with rural priests such as Simon Stumpf at and Wilhelm Reublin, who sought to establish self-governing Volkskirchen (“peoples church”) in the rural communities, independent of Zurich’s central authority, both religious and civil.
C) The Schleitheim Articles of 1527, edited by Michael Sattler, consolidated this Swiss Anabaptism. Its goal was not the purification of existing Christianity, but rather the separation of congregations of believers from the world. These Swiss Brethren came to be known for their legalistic approach to the Bible, a salvation manifesting itself in the creation of separated congregations, and baptism which symbolized that salvation.
D) South German Anabaptism: South German Anabaptism stems from the reformulation of ideas from Thomas Munzer by Hans Hut and Hans Denck. Munzer envisioned the inner transformation of persons through the Spirit and an accompanying external transformation of the entire society, with the newly transformed individuals acting in revolutionary fashion to usher in the kingdom of God. This revolution, along with Munzer, died in the 1525 massacre of peasants at Frankenhausen.
Hans Denck’s concept of inner transformation was pacifist, with focus on the renewal of individuals than of society. This inner, transforming Christ served Denck as an alternative authority both to Rome and to the exegesis of the Reformers.
Hans Hut commanded the transformed believers to keep the revolutionary sword sheathed until God called for it. Hut’s practice of rebaptism was not to form separated congregations, but rather to mark the elect for the end-time judgment. Hut’s movement gradually died out following his death in a jail fire.
A Hut legacy developed in Moravia, out of the conflict in the congregation at Nikolsburg between the pacifist Stabler (staff bearers), influenced by Hut and Swiss Brethren refugees, and the Schwertler (sword bearers), the majority party under the influence of Balthasar Hubmaier, who had established a state church form of Anabaptism in the city.
Another form of the Hut legacy developed in South Germany around Pilgram Marpeck. Marpeck develop a mediating position on the Bible, critical both of the legalist Swiss and of spiritualist views. Rather than the radical social separation of the Swiss Brethren, Marpeck held to a separation of church and state which did not withhold all cooperation by believers.
E) Low Countries Anabaptism: Always zealously interested in eschatological speculation, Melchior Hofmann believed in the near inbreaking of God’s kingdom into the world, with divine vengeance upon the wicked. The righteous would participate in this judgment, not as agents of vengeance but as witnesses to the coming peace. Hofmann’s baptism served to gather the elect into an end – time congregation to build this new Jerusalem. He died after ten years imprisonment in Strasbourg.
Two lines carried on the Hofmann legacy. Tithe revolutionary Melchiorites, founded the short-lived kingdom of Munster, 1534 – 35. Under Jan Matthys, a disciple of Hofmann, and then under Jan van Leiden, who seized power at the death of Matthys, the Melchiorites in the city of Munster gave a political and social expression to Hofmann’s end-time kingdom. They transformed his idea of divine vengeance so that in Munster the members of the kingdom carried out vengeance upon anyone who opposed them. Following the fall of the city Melchioritism died out, although it was carried on for a time by personages such as Jan van Batenburg.
The pacifist line from Hofmann runs through Menno Simons. After the fall of Munster, Menno rallied the peaceful Melchiorites as well as the surviving Munsterites disillusioned with violence. Menno replaced Hofmann’s near end time with the idea of a time of peace which had already begun with Jesus. Using the “celestial flesh” Christology of Hofmann which he adopted, Menno developed concepts of the transformation of the individual and of the assembly of a spotless church.
The heirs of the various Anabaptist groups came to recognize their common emphases on the Bible, adult baptism, pacifism, and sense of separation from the state church and worldly society. Some sense of unity developed, as represented by the Concept of Cologne signed in 1591 by fifteen preachers, the first confession of faith accepted simultaneously by Dutch and High and Low German Mennonites.
F) Spiritualists: Spiritualists downplayed or rejected altogether external forms of church and ceremonies, opting instead for inner communion through the Holy Spirit. Kasper Schwenckfeld held that there had been no correct baptism for a thousand years, and in 1526 he recommended suspension of the observance of the Lord’s Supper until the question of its proper form could be settled. Sebastian Franck (1499-1542) rejected altogether the idea of an external church. He saw external ceremonies as mere props to support an infant church and which in any case had been taken over by the antichrist immediately after the death of the apostles. Franck held the true church to be invisible, its individuals nurtured by the Spirit but scattered until Christ gathered them at his second coming.
G) Evangelical Rationalists: Other radicals, giving significant weight to reason alongside the Scriptures, came to reject aspects of traditional theology, principally in Christological and Trinitarian matters. Michael Servetus, burned in Calvin’s Geneva for his views, is an example of antitrinitarianism, which attained institutional form in the pacifistic Polish Brethren (Socinians), and in the Unitarian churches in Lithuania and Transylvania.

LECTURE NINE:
PROTEST AND POLITICS: THE ENGLISH AND SCOTTISH REFORMATION

I) Introduction: It is important to remember that the English Reformation was not primarily or even principally about theology, but politics. It is virtually impossible to speak of the sixteenth century Protestant Reformation in England or Scotland without referencing the involvement of the English monarchs from Henry VIII to Elizabeth I.

A) Henry VIII – The 1530’s witnessed Henry’s growing estrangement with the Roman Catholic Church, which eventually led to the establishment of the Church of England. The separation was actually more a by-product of Henry’s obsession with producing a male heir, and the need to maintain dynastic legitimacy. Henry sought an annulment from his first wife, Catherine of Aragon, from the pope in order to marry Anne Boleyn. Cardinal Wolsey, Henry’s friend in Rome, tried repeatedly to secure a legal annulment from Pope Clement VII, but Clement was beholden to the Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor and nephew of Catherine. Henry summoned the Reformation Parliament in 1529, which passed 137 statutes in seven years and exercised an influence in political and ecclesiastic affairs which was unknown to feudal parliaments. Religious reform movements had already taken hold in England, but on a small scale. The Lollards, the followers of John Wycliffe, had been in existence since the mid-fourteenth century and the ideas of Luther and Zwingli circulated within intellectual groups, but continental Protestantism had yet to find favor with the English people. The break from Rome was accomplished not, as it had been on the continent, because of theological differences with the Roman church, but through law. Henry, who earlier in his career had been named the “Defender of the Church” by the Pope, now stood as Supreme Head of the Church of England. However, he allowed only slight alterations in worship ritual instead of a wholesale reworking of religious dogma. England moved into an era of “conformity of mind” with the new royal supremacy by 1536, all ecclesiastical and government officials were required to publicly approve of the break with Rome and take an oath of loyalty. The king moved away from the medieval idea of ruler as chief lawmaker and overseer of civil behavior, to the modern idea of ruler as the ideological icon of the state.

B) Edward VI – Edward (Henry’s only legitimate male heir) was beset by problems from the onset of his reign. Ascending the throne while still in his teens presented a backdrop for factional in fighting and power plays among some of the more powerful princes and nobles (both lay and ecclesial) in his court. Henry VIII sought to eliminate this potential problem by decreeing that a Council of Regency would govern until the child came of age, but Edward Seymour (Edward VI’s uncle) gained the upper hand. The Council offered Seymour the Protectorship of the realm and the Dukedom of Somerset; he genuinely cared for both the boy and the realm, but used the Protectorship, as well as Edward’s religious radicalism, to further his Protestant interests. The Book of Common Prayer, the work of Archbishop Thomas Cranmer, was instituted in 1549 as a handbook to the new style of worship that skated controversial issues in an effort to pacify Catholics. Henrician treason and heresy laws were repealed, transforming England into a haven for continental reformers. Catholics were pleased with the softer version of Protestantism, but radical Protestants clamored for further reforms, adding to the ever-present factional discord. However, general unrest and factional maneuvering proved Somerset’s undoing; he was executed in September 1552. Thus began one of the most corrupt eras of English political history.

C) Mary I 1553 – 1558) – Mary sought, during her short five year reign to return England to Rome, and as her Father moved England from Rome through law and intimidation, so Mary used laws and intimidation to eradicate Protestantism from her realm. The following are some of the more significant events in her reign.

1553:
The Forty-Two Articles issued (includes the statement that Justification
before God is by faith alone; also, good works play no part in salvation & there is no purgatory.)
Mary Tudor proclaimed queen of England. Protestant Bishops Bale, Coverdale, Ponet, Scory & Barlow are deprived of their offices & eventually flee overseas. Catholic Bishops Gardiner and Bonner are released from prison and reinstated to former offices.
Mary orders that Archbishop Cranmer be arrested. His fellow Protestant leaders – Latimer, Hooper & Ridley (and a score of others) are also arrested.
Parliament, in session, refuses to repeal the Act of Supremacy, despite Mary’s insistence. They do pass an Act of Repeal which essentially voids the Edwardian reformation – and reinstates Mass, clerical celibacy & ritual worship.
Mary responds to Parliament’s refusal to repeal the Act of Supremacy & rejects the title of Supreme Head of the English Church.
1554
Prominent English Protestants flee to Germany and Switzerland, trying to avoid Marian prosecution of married/non-celibate clergy.
Mary issues the Royal Injunction which orders bishops to remove married clergy from office, suppresses heresy, and recognizes as legitimate only ordained clergy who have been ordained under the English Ordinal. She restores Holy Days and attendant ceremonies. BishopGardiner begins a methodical purge of married clergy, which eventually claims almost a quarter of parish clergy.
Parliament meets again and eventually agrees to pass heresy laws – if there is no restoration of monastic lands. Mary reluctantly agrees to the condition. Parliament also passes a 2nd Act of Repeal which voids all religious legislation since 1529. In other words, the Henrician Reformation never occurred!
Cardinal Reginald Pole (whose Plantagenet mother, Margaret, was brutally murdered by Henry VIII) returns to England and the Papal sentence of excommunication is lifted from England.
1555
Mary begins the new year by appointing a commission to re-establish various religious houses.
The first Protestant martyrs John Rogers, translator of the Bible, along with Bishops Ridley and Latimer are convicted and publicly burned under the new heresy laws.
Archbishop Cranmer is officially deprived of the See of Canterbury, and Cardinal Reginald Pole is given Cranmer’s former position.

1556
The public burning of Protestant martyrs continues unabated, including Thomas Cranmer who recants all retractions.
1557
Many small religious houses are re-established.
Pole is recalled to Rome to answer charges of heresy, but Mary refuses to let him go. The pope appoints Friar William Peto as Papal Legate in Pole’s place, but Mary refuses to recognize the appointment.
1558
Five prominent Protestants burnt for heresy at Canterbury. In total, about 300 Protestants were killed during Mary’s reign.

D) Elizabeth I – Elizabeth inherited a tattered realm: dissension between Catholics and Protestants tore at the very foundation of society; the royal treasury had been bled dry by Mary and her advisors, and many (mainly Catholics) doubted Elizabeth’s claim to the throne.
Her first order of business was to eliminate religious unrest. Elizabeth lacked the fanaticism of her siblings, Edward (Protestant) and Mary (Catholic), which enabled her to devise a compromise that reinstated Henrician reforms. She was, however, compelled to take a stronger Protestant stance for two reasons: the machinations of the Catholic Mary Queen of Scots and persecution of continental Protestants by the two strongholds of Orthodox Catholicism, Spain and France. Mary, in Elizabeth’s custody beginning in 1568 (for her own protection from radical Protestants and disgruntled Scots), gained the loyalty of Catholic factions and instituted several-failed assassination/overthrow plots against her cousin, Elizabeth. After irrefutable evidence of Mary’s involvement in such plots came to light, Elizabeth succumbed to the pressure from her advisors and had the Scottish princess executed in 1587.
The persecution of continental Protestants forced Elizabeth into war. She sent an army to aid French Huguenots after a 1572 massacre where over 3,000 Huguenots lost their lives. She sent further assistance to Protestant’s on the continent and in Scotland following the emergence of radical Catholic groups, and assisted Belgium in their bid to gain independence from Spain. When Elizabeth rejected a marriage proposal from Philip II of Spain, the Spanish King, incensed by English piracy, sent his much-feared Armada to raid England. However, the English won the naval battle handily, due as much to bad weather as to English naval prowess.

II) Timeline: What follows is a timeline of the English Reformation:

1521 – Cambridge students, including Thomas Cranmer, form a study-group at the White Horse Tavern. Henry VIII writes a book on the sacraments against Luther. The bishop of Rome gives him a golden rose and names him “defender of the faith”.

1526 – Cardinal Wolsey presides at a massive burning of Lutheran books.

1527 – Thomas Bilney, Cambridge preacher and Lutheran sympathizer, is dragged from his pulpit. (He is burned in 1531.)

1529 – Henry VIII declares himself head of the English church, forcibly cuts the Anglican bishops off from communion with Rome. However, services at the churches, however, remain essentially the same. (The mass is in Latin, there is no sermon or systematic Bible reading, and the people are passive and receive communion only at Easter, getting only the consecrated bread.)

1532 – Cranmer made archbishop of Canterbury. This effectively ends clerical celibacy among Anglicans, as Cranmer is twice-married. The “Act in Restraint of Appeals” prohibits appeals to the bishop of Rome.

1534 – “Act of Succession.” Everyone must swear allegiance to Henry VIII as head of the English church. Prime Minister Thomas More refuses.

1535 – Henry VIII beheads More, and intended to execute Mary, his daughter by Catherine, who also refused to swear. He was dissuaded from doing this by Cranmer.

1536 – William Tyndale, a priest and Lutheran sympathizer who is responsible for an illegal English translation of the Bible, is strangled at the stake.

1536 – Henry VIII ensures the permanent popularity of the English reformation by abolishing the monasteries.

1538 – John Rogers (alias Thomas Matthew) prints the Tyndale Bible translation (finished by Miles Coverdale) in Paris. It is approved by the Henry VIII as the “Great Bible” to be read by all his people.

1539 – The Six Articles against Lutheranism is passed by Parliament, and Henry VIII is still occasionally burning Lutherans and hanging Roman Catholics.

1544 – Cranmer instructed to write prayers and a litany (for the army) in English. He does this so well that he is asked to make a prayer book in English, based on the service at Salisbury Cathedral.

1546 –England is becoming a haven for Protestants from the continent.

1548 – Under Edward, “Images” ordered removed from all churches by the council of regents. This also means no vestments, ashes, palms, holy water, or crucifixes. This causes so much resentment that an order suppressing all preaching follows.

1549 – First Book of Common Prayer (Cranmer’s work). It is written in English, emphasizes the people’s participation in the Eucharist, and requires the Bible to be read from cover to cover. Fast days are retained (supposedly to help fishermen), but saints’ days are not. Roman Catholic rebels in Cornwall claim they cannot understand English.

1552 – Book of Common Prayer revised to suit Protestants. No more “real presence” at the Eucharist. No vestments, no signing of the cross at confirmation, no holy oil, no reserved sacrament, no prayers for the departed.

1553 – An attempt by Cardinal Pole (Mary’s archbishop of Canterbury) to restore monasticism fizzles when, among 1500 surviving monks, nuns, and friars, fewer than 100 are willing to return to celibacy.

1563 – Thirty-Nine Articles drafted as a doctrinal statement by a convocation of the Church of England.

1563 – “Foxe’s Book of Martyrs.” The bishop of Rome is portrayed as the Antichrist; Foxe writes speeches as needed for such “Protestant martyrs” as Thomas Cromwell.

III) John Knox (1513-1572) and the Scottish Reformation: Knox was ordained as a Catholic priest c.1535. He was converted to the Protestant cause after he meeting Wishart and Beacon. Wishart was burned at the stake in 1546, and shortly afterwards Knox was arrested by the authorities and made a galley slave for 19 months. He went to England in 1549 and preached Protestant themes until the reign of Bloody Mary, during which time he lived in Frankfort, Germany. There he came under the influence of Calvin. He returned to Scotland after several years in Geneva, and began preaching against the Papal Church. He was arrested under Queen Mary Stuart in 1560 and tried for treason, but was acquitted. He spent his remaining years preaching and lecturing in Edinburgh and St. Andrews. Above all others, he was the maker of Protestant Scotland.

Discuss the following using the Turabian format:

1) The Anabaptists
2) Thomas Crammer, the Archbishop of Canterbury (1489-1556); the co-author of The 39 Articles of Religion and The Book of Common Prayer